User:Khendruks/Sandbox

In recent years there has been a tremendous interest being shown in the field of organization and its development. In the event to enhance this natural process of management, a myriad of proposals has been laid down to further accentuate the process more through other diminutive means which otherwise are extremely important. A need for development in all spheres of an organization is looked as a matter of need in the present global situation. The need to satisfy and motivate personnel is looked at from different angles by different stakeholders. Managerial position in this regard serves as a means to enhance the effectiveness of an organization with various means of thought process- the need to motivate the employee in order to bring about the wholesome development of an organization which in turn leads to the totality of the effectiveness of an organization per se. Unlike other business organization, the organizational effectiveness of a principal cannot be objectified. School in that sense is an organization wherein involves stakeholders from all walks of life. School somehow, directly or indirectly, touches our lives. Therefore the need to have organizational effectiveness in a school is indispensable. In a broad aspect, any organization including schools are said to be more effective if they perform their functions well. Function well – is altogether a relative term and this leads us to determine whether the school is effective or not. If it is or if not, to what extent? The context of schooling demands a higher premium on the output of better students – in action and in deeds. It acts as a producer of social prestige, however, for the purpose of this study, it is all about how effective the organization in particular was. The greater chunk of school effectiveness, therefore lies in the hand of the principal of the school. In order to run the school in the most effective manner, decision needs to be made. How these decisions are made is an important factor to consider for a principal in the school. The principal must decide whether to take the decision himself wholly or to let the employee take part in the decision making process. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF ORGANIZATION Organization as a concept has been described by different authorities in different ways. In an organization like school, we find so many people working together towards achieving a common goal. In doing so an organization actually brings individual to the work situation from different background and social experiences. Their aptitude and their output depends on so many authorities like their social, physical and emotional needs besides other needs. Therefore it is safe to say that his needs and expectations need to go hand in hand with the people associated with both inside and outside the organization. Organization therefore can be defined as a highly complex system where there are people of different attitude and caliber working together towards achieving a common goal by making possible adjustments towards their physical, social and emotional bearings. Organization is a system, where all the resources are grouped in a formal setting for the attainment of specific objectives. To run the system in the best possible manner, it is important for each part of the system to interact properly and appropriately. Organizational development on the other hand is purely a vast theme. A school that continuously strives for growth should also make sure to bring satisfaction to its members whether teaching or non-teaching. Effectiveness on the other hand is the ability of the organization to mobilize all the powers for adaptation, production and action through coordination, communication and integration.

“Literature suggests that the concept of organizational effectiveness has been very problematic due to its subjective and abstract nature” (Sajjad, Bahadar, Malik, Ali, & Zaman, 2011). It is not so an easy task to define organizational effectiveness be it in business organizations or social organization like a school, it depends a lot whole of human resources and their effectiveness in their realm of work, whatsoever. Societies invest huge amount of money along with the government to bring about total transformation in the civility of future generations. Therefore school organization is accountable to the general society as a whole. In doing so, the organizational effectiveness is very much dependent on the principal and the Decision he makes in the school. Mouzas (2006) emphasized two important indicators to measure the organizational performance of an organization: Effectiveness and Efficiency. For people at a managerial level it sounds almost similar yet they have their own distinctive characteristics. In general Effectiveness and efficiency are performance indicators of an organization. It is evident here that effectiveness and efficiency go hand in hand. For an organization to be a performing organization both the indicators are necessary and next to none. Mouzas (2006) also tells us that efficiency is given high importance in the business world which often leads to disgruntled employee and other occupational stress. He says that efficiency is inclined towards maximizing output with the optimum level of input. While he equates effectiveness as “…a unique model of embracing business opportunities through exchange relationships.” The assumption of effectiveness into creating a unique model is the setting up of an atmosphere of the organization based on its values, ethics and principles in an organization. Now consider what Mouzas (2006) had opined, it is fair to conclude that effectiveness relies purely on Human Relation Model. The exchange and interaction of human relationships. Peter F. Drucker in his book, The Effective Executive, says: “Efficiency is doing things right; effectiveness is doing the right things.” (Drucker, 2007). It is clear here that Drucker gives greater importance to effectiveness over efficiency. Therefore a careful look into these unique connotation by Drucker, we can conclude that Efficiency is performance based while Effectiveness is value based. Drucker emphasizes the need to doing the right things in an organization like looking into what others have not done or by avoiding what is unproductive.it is not to be misunderstood that efficiency is not important, however, effectiveness is given the greater priority. In retrospect, we can say that both Drucker and Mouzas emphasizes the importance of organizational Effectiveness over organizational efficiency. Therefore it is safe for the researcher to consider it as the soul of an organization which besides increasing efficiency will also look into other important aspects of organizational development. The basic fundamental difference between organizational effectiveness and organizational efficiency is the fact that an organization can essentially use efficiency to exclusively measure financial output while organizational effectiveness can mean the measure of exchange of human relationship towards achieving a common goal. For instance, effectiveness could measure how effectively the employees of an organization does their work or how do they use the assets in the organization pertaining to facts of abstract nature and ideas while efficiency concretely measures. While organizational effectiveness is abstract, it relates more directly to business theory than the practical aspects of it. Considering the views put forward by different researchers it is safe to relate on the organizational output as the focus of this study on the basis of the organizational output, its effectiveness can be distinguished as follows: a.	Organization’s technical effectiveness: f the organizations are studied in terms of those happenings in an organization (e.g., production output, skills obtained, change in attitude etc.). it is known as the technical effectiveness of the organization while it is also equated as the internal effectiveness of the organization b.	Organization’s Social Effectiveness: if the organization outputs are studied in line with their effects on the society or its effect on an individual (e.g. Socialization aspect, work earnings, work productivity, etc.) then it is called the social effectiveness of that organization. It is also known as the external effectiveness of the organization. While the term organizational efficiency could mean both positive and negative outcomes, effectiveness only includes the positive outcome of the o\ Organizational effectiveness certainly encompasses productivity but is not limited to it. The narrowest definition of organizational output as per Pandya (2011) “is the amount of physical output for each unit of productive input.” However this definition is non-applicable in terms of non-profit organization like a school or hospital. It needs different lens to be viewed for better understanding.

1.	Organizational effectiveness is the concept of how effective an organization is in achieving the outcomes the organization intends to produce (wikipedia, n.d.) In relation to the definition by Wikipedia, the definition is generic which gives the researcher the space to flex his wings. In doing so, it is safe to say that the definition here really does not provide us with the factors affecting it. Hence in consideration to this definition it is fair enough to predict that this definition is more open and generic in nature. It does allow the researcher to consider Decision Making style as a factor to its effectiveness 2.	The efficiency with which an association is able to meet its objectives. (Dictionary, n.d.). This definition seems to put more emphasis on efficiency than effectiveness. If we were to consider only profit-oriented organizations, this would prove more acceptable, however, if we are to consider non-profit organization it seems insufficient to answer to the very nature of this research work. 3.	Organizational effectiveness is the concept of how effective an organization is in achieving its goals. (Questia, n.d.)Every employee in an organization has a role to play in its effectiveness and the role of a principal in an organization like school is all the more indispensable. It is the very hand that turns the tide of the organization. It is therefore the decision capability of the principal of a school to take a school to greater heights or pull it down. Hence his capability of decision making makes a great mark on the organizational effectiveness of his organization. Given the flexible nature of the above definition there is no question that other employees in the organization are also involved, however, the role of the school principal as a manager in the school is of paramount importance. His ability to affect the thinking of the employee and his ability to make better and informed decisions is directly related to the effectiveness of his organization. 4.	Taylor gives us the definition of organizational effectiveness as dependent upon factors such as production maximization, cost minimization and technological excellence. (Questia, n.d.) Most of the private school as a business venture needs the better hands of the principal and his ability to bring about and turn the tide of the school. An efficient organization need not necessarily mean that it is an effective organization. As already stated earlier, it is not about being efficient but effective. So the valuable aspect of the organization can be overlooked if the principal in the school does not tread his path in decision making carefully. 5.	Henri Fayol developed a general theory of business administration. He suggests that there are five primary functions of management: planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating and controlling. Fayol defines organizational effectiveness as a function of clear authority and discipline within an organization. (Questia, n.d.) Henry Fayol, on the other hand is clear when he highlight the importance of clear authority and discipline. It also questions the value of the organization and to keep it a toe, it entirely rests on the principal of the school to make informed decision in order to take his organization to greater heights. Given the nature of school and the rapid development of educational trends, the principal in the school has greater role to play than ever. It is in his hands to make the best of choices and there are very limited room for errors. Hence his decisiveness and his training in the ability to make better decision will go a long way. 6.	Elton Mayo, the founder of the Human Relations Movement shows us the importance of groups in affecting the behavior of individuals at work. Mayo says that organizational effectiveness is a function of productivity that results from employee satisfaction. (Questia, n.d.) School being a dynamic organization often effects the behavior of the people concerned with the organization. The 9 to 5 schedule is often overlooked in this kind of an organization. The nature of the job of school teacher and the principal go beyond this 9 to 5 schedule. If the school is a boarding school, it all the more increases the work load. There are numerous ways to measure the organizational effectiveness but for the purpose of this paper, it is important for the researcher to look into the aspect of stability and cohesion in the organization owing to the decision making styles of the principal of the school. Therefore it is important to understand the natural system perspective of organizational effectiveness which looks into the goals of the organization from employee satisfaction to their morale and their skills. Time is also a determinant for Organizational effectiveness in most social institutions. Their output is not realized until there is an enough time frame to achieve it and the decisiveness of the principal of the institution plays a crucial role. There are five main approaches in measuring organizational effectiveness, which include goal approach, internal process approach, system resource approach, constituencies approach and internal processes approach. (Questia, n.d.) 7.	The goal approach focuses that an organization is effective when it accomplishes its stated goals. (Questia, n.d.). The goal approach of organizational effectiveness is applied when the set goals are within the expected time and when the output of the goal is measureable. This approach is often shrouded with ambiguity and measurement error. 8.	According to the internal process approach effectiveness is the ability to excel at internal efficiency, coordination, and motivation and employee satisfaction. (Questia, n.d.) This aspect of approach looks into the effort put in by the employee as a force to organizational effectiveness. It does not care about the result. It is also one of the prime aspect wherein the decision making style of a principal in a school will play a pivotal role. 9.	The system resource approach defines effectiveness as the ability to acquire scarce and valued resources from the environment. (Questia, n.d.) This aspect looks into the aspect of equal work for equal input. There is a clear indication of the input and the output achieved. The system approach is one of the most important aspect of the need of the policy guidelines. In fulfilling the need of the policy guidelines, decision making styles of the principal is of paramount importance. 10.	Constituency approach measures the effectiveness of the ability to satisfy multiple strategic constituencies both within and outside the organization. (Questia, n.d.) Decision making style on this approach is based purely on a need basis. It takes care of organizations that depend highly on response to demands. Now this can have two facets, the perspective of the employer who will be looking into the investment and returns while the employees would be looking into other benefits and compensation for the job done. The benefits need not necessarily be cash. It could be a pat on the back for a job well carried out and decision comes in handy especially for a manger in such approaches. 11.	According to the domain approach effectiveness is the ability to excel in one or more among several domains as selected by senior managers (Questia, n.d.). This domain is perhaps more mechanical where in the employee are already decided to carry out a work and produce the result. However, this domain also gives the power to the employee to make their own decision and be responsible for it. It actually looks into the decentralization of powers to the employees which may or may not be good. An organization's effectiveness depend mostly on its communicative competence and ethics. Ethics is a foundation within organizational effectiveness. An organization to be effective must exemplify respect, equity, honesty, and integrity to allow communicative competence amongst the members. When ethics and communicative competence go hand in hand the members can achieve their intended goals for the organization. Since Organizational effectiveness is an abstract concept, it is basically impossible to measure. Instead of measuring organizational effectiveness, the organization accepts measures which be represents effectiveness like number of people served, types of services provided and the demands of the society is being met or not. To be an affective organization, it must successfully respond to the environmental factors. The question here is how will we measure organizational effectiveness? Various models are there to determine the effectiveness as organization faces different kinds of people, being at the different stages of growth, producing different kinds of product- entirely in different environmental factors. So to determine the effectiveness, different models of organizational development has come up in recent days. The model of organizational effectiveness depends upon two dimensions of focus; internal and external focus of the organization. When these two dimension interact together, further four models of organizational effectiveness emerge (Frank, 1974). 1.	Rational Goal Model: this is a traditional model of school evaluation wherein there are clearly stated goals for measuring organizational effectiveness. According to this model the organization is effective to the extent the set goal is accomplished. 2.	Open System Model: is the ability of the organization to effectively acquire inputs from its environment and has accepted output to the environment. The total no. of students enrolling in a higher secondary school and the passing of the students to the next higher level, if acceptable, is said to be an effective organization as peer this model. 3.	 Internal Process Model: it focuses on the internal aspect of an organization as in a school the quality check of curriculum and competitiveness. If the internal functioning of the school is health then it is supposed to be highly effective. 4.	Human Relation Model: this model focusses on the development of the employee of the organization. Looking into what Frank (1974) suggests, it is clear that Human Relational Model would be more concentrated to the decision making aspect of the principal of the school. The organizational effectiveness these days depends more on the behavioral aspect of the employees and the degree of their level of satisfaction in an organization. In order to achieve effectiveness, the need to understand the employee psyche and motivation by the principal has become indispensable. No teacher in the school would want their principal, the manager of their school to be harsh and autocratic. As already stated, school being a social institution, the effectiveness of the organization can be seen only in a long term, so the need to be decisive and effective go hand in hand for the enhancement of the school organization. Therefore, decision making style of the school principal play a pivotal role in the organizational effectiveness of a school. Kukk (2015) emphasized that effectiveness is value oriented where it is about achieving the desired result and not doing something optimally. Kukk really implies that effectives in an organization is based on time and not optimization. While efficiency can be doing things in the optimal way but may be wrong while effectiveness is doing the right thing and time is given less importance here. It is not time driven. Decision Making is one of the most important attributes of a leader. A leader’s hall mark is his ability to make the best decision when the grueling task of it is necessary and very important. This process however is very important to organizations because it will either facilitate goal execution or can hinder it (Lovern, 2007). (Lovern, 2007, p. 10) Reiterated that the managers these days not only needs to take good decisions but they must also take responsibility for making the decision in order to ensure the survival of the organization they are in. Decision making to the managers are often marred with insufficient time and the delay in the decision could mean that it will affect its effectiveness and may present itself in a negative light. Many researchers in the managerial field suggests that the manager should gather information from as many departments as possible in his organization. He also should make sure that while collecting all the information, it may not be completely correct, which in turn could affect the decision making process and incorrect decision has consequences to the manager and the organization at large and understand that a change in the work atmosphere could also affect their decision making ability. These researchers also felt the importance of taking responsibility for the outcome of the decision he has made and not blame others when it affects the organization in an n unexpected manner because pointing finger at other effects the respect and trust one has earned over a period of time. Kavaland Voyten, (2006) in (Lovern, 2007, p. 10) suggested on how to come up with effective processes for decision making and implementing it. They believes that decision can be categorized into three: Crisis, Operational and Strategic. They defined these terms taking in a scenario where healthcare organization had about 100 nursing positions and more than 70% resigned as the demand of overtime was high. In such case the filling up of the position of the nurse quickly could be crisis decision. If there is a high turnover and the leaders want to assess it as an issue, then it is an operational decision making style and if he wants to put the right people for the post of the nursing staff it would be considered the strategic decision making. All these three types of decision needs to be considered to effectively overcome the issue(s) in an organization. So accordingly the need to consider the best mode of decision making style and determine the most effective decision making process is critical for the growth of the organization. However, as a manager of a school, it is also important to consider who needs to be in the decision making body of the school in order to enhance correct and collective decision. The leader in any firm needs to be proactive in the process of decision making because this quality in the leadership would enable him to reach appropriate conclusion and help him prevent from wrangling in the idea of last minute decision making. Kourdi(2006) believed that as a manager he must embrace risk and convert it into opportunities while avoiding the pitfalls of decision making. Pitfalls in decision making include over analysis, blaming employees for negative outcomes, filing to execute decision, continuing with the past mistake and perpetuating it, being too cautious and averting from minimal risk taking, giving disproportionate weightage to the information received at the first instance as important, giving undue weightage to the recent event, overestimating the forecasting ability and its accuracy. Avoiding these pitfalls is very important as it can either create or destroy an organization ( (Bower & Gilbert, 2007). It is also important for the manager to consider the information from his subordinates to make strategic decisions because involving them in the process makes them feel a part of it which in turn enhances the overall output of the employee in general. The manager also need to assess and reassess the strengths and weakness of the organization and accordingly streamline the goals, it communication and organizational strategies to the employee (Hatch, 1997). Hatch believed in the fact that organization generally make better decisions when it listens to and collaborates with them. The level of employee involvement is very important in the decision making process. Involving the employee actually enhances the communication between them ( (Holtzhausen, 2002) in this connections the manager or the principal for that matter should not involve employee until the employee perceives the importance of his involvement in the process. Therefore it is critical that the manager assess the success of his organization form the perception of his employees and not his own. When the process of the Decision Making process are in tune with the expectations of the employee involvement, it increases motivation and leads to higher productivity and greater job satisfaction. It is also safe to say that the structure of the organization, the leadership style and Decision Making style of the leader have greater effect on the employee relationships. Involvement of the employee in the decision making process has catered to positive relationship and greater job satisfaction which in turn leads to better output of the organization. Decision Making Style of the principal in the school is one of the most important aspect of organizational effectiveness as the attitude of the manager or for that matter the attitude of the principal will affect the employees behavior such as towards overall cooperation and towards positive or negative reactions. Therefore the employees’ satisfaction and their attitude is perhaps the most important area for the measurement of organizational effectiveness. Tett & Burnett (2003) suggested that employees interact with three levels of their work environments such as the task level, social level and the organization level. Now close observation on the decision making aspect of the manager it is confirmed that the decision making not only affects the task level but the social and the organizational level as well. As per the research findings The researcher in this paper will try to focus on the importance of decision making styles of school principals of Bhutan and its relationship to the organizational effectiveness of a school. He will also make sure to present the current scenario …. [TO BE CONTINUED]